Chapter 22

The Prince’s Ministers

The choice of servants is a crucial one for the prince. They are good or not depending on the judgment of the prince. Indeed, observing the servants around a prince provides the first opinion one forms of a prince and of his judgment. When they are capable and faithful, he may always be considered wise. Clearly, he has known how to recognize capable men and understands how to keep them faithful. But, when one sees bad servants, one cannot form a good opinion of the prince, because he has clearly made some serious errors in choosing them.

Anyone who knew the Prince of Siena, Pandolfo Petrucci’s, servant Messer Antonio da Venafro would have to consider Pandolfo to be a very clever man in having Venafro for his servant. There are three kinds of minds: one which understands by itself; another understands that which others explain; and a third which does not understand by itself or even when it is taught by others. The first sort of mind is the most excellent, the second is good, the third is useless. Therefore, it is clear that even if Pandolfo was not in the first rank, he was at least in the second. For, even if a prince is not able to think up things on his own, he may have judgment good enough to know good or bad when it is said and done by his servant. Thus, the prince can praise good actions and correct the bad. In this way, the servant cannot hope to deceive the prince, and is kept honest.

In order for a prince to form an opinion of his servant, there is one test which never fails. When you see the servant thinking more of his own interests and profit than of yours, you must realize that such a man will never make a good servant. More than that, you will never be able to trust him. A good rule for servants is that he who has the state of another in his hands should never think of himself, but always of his prince. The servant should pay no attention to matters in which the prince is not concerned.

In order to keep his servant honest, the prince ought to study him, honor him, enrich him, do him kindnesses, and share with him the honors and cares of the State. At the same time, let the servant see that he cannot stand alone. That way, many honors will not make him desire more, and many riches will not make him wish for more. By being tied to the prince, the servant will fear revolution since his position depends upon that of the prince. Therefore, when servants and princes behave in such a manner towards each other, they can trust each other. But, when it is otherwise, the end will always be disastrous for either one or the other.

Chapter 23

How to Avoid Flatterers

I do not want to leave out an important branch of the subject of servants because it is an important issue for princes. Unless they are careful and choose their servants well, princes can very easily be tripped up by flatterers. Princely courts are full of flatterers because men are so self-satisfied about their own affairs. Consequently, princes are easily deceived about their affairs and have difficulty getting rid of these pests. Moreover, if princes do try to get rid of the flatterers, they run the risk of making themselves hated. This comes about because there is only one way to guard oneself from flatterers, and that is by letting it be understood that you will not be offended by plain speaking and open truth. However, if everyone may speak their mind boldly to the prince, he risks losing respect. Therefore, a wise prince should take a third approach, and that is to choose wise men as his advisors. To these men alone does he grant the right to speak the truth plainly to him. Additionally, they may only speak on those things about which he asks. He should them question them about everything and listen to their opinions. Afterwards, he should form his own conclusions. With these councilors, the prince should make it clear that the more freely they speak, the more he will like them. At the same time, the prince should listen to no one outside of his circle of trusted councilors. He should pursue the things decided upon, and he should be committed in his decisions. If the prince does not do this, he will be either buried by flatterers or become a laughingstock when he changes his mind too often.

Let me give you a modern example. Fra Luca, advisor to Maximilian, the present emperor [of “Germany”], said of the emperor that: he consulted with no one, yet never got his own way in anything. This description applies because the emperor followed a path opposite from the one described above. The emperor is a secretive man. He does not discuss his plans with any one and he does not listen to anyone else’s opinions. However, once he acts his plans become clear to all, and they are at once opposed by those men whom he has around him. Since the emperor is not very firm in his plans, he is constantly turned away from them. Hence, it follows that those things he does one day, he undoes the next. No one ever understands what he wishes or intends to do, and no one can rely on his decisions.

A prince, therefore, should always ask for advice, but only listen when he asks for it. Indeed, he should discourage anyone from offering advice unless he asks it. However, he should ask questions constantly and listen patiently to the answers. Also, if the prince ever learns that anyone, for any reason, has not told him the truth, the prince should let his anger be felt.

People sometimes think that a wise prince is not wise himself, but only because of his good advisors. This opinion is always incorrect because of the following infallible law: a prince who is not wise himself will never take good advice. The only exception is if he has given up his powers entirely to one person who luckily happens to be a very careful man. In this case, the princedom may indeed be well governed. However, it will not remain well governed for long because such an advisor would quickly seize the state from the prince. Another proof of the law is that a prince who is not wise is unable to take advice from more than one person because he will be unable to put the various pieces of advice together. Each of the counselors will think of his own interests, and a stupid prince will not know how to control them or to see through them. Advisors always behave in such a manner because, unless they are forced to be good, men will always turn out to be bad. Therefore, it can be said that from wherever good advice comes, it has its true source in the prince.

Chapter 24

Why the Princes of Italy Have Lost Their States

If a prince follows all of the above suggestions carefully, he will appear well established and will be more secure in his new state than if he had held it for a long time. This is true because the actions of a new prince are watched more closely than those of an hereditary one. When those new princes are seen to be skilled, they gain more men and bind those men far tighter than by bonds of ancient blood. Men are attracted more by the present than by the past, and when they find the present good they enjoy it and look no further. Additionally, when a prince does not fail them in their needs, his supporters will support him to the end. Thus, establishing a new principality brings double glory to the founder. This is especially true if he has decorated and strengthened the new state with good laws, good arms, good allies, and good examples. Obviously, it is also doubly disgrace for a born prince to lose his state because of a lack of wisdom.

When one looks at all of the great men who have lost their states in Italy in our times, such as the King of Naples, the Duke of Milan, and others, one sees that they have similarities. In the first place, they share a common defect in regard to the types of soldiers they use, as I discussed before at length. In the next place, they have not known how to control either the nobles, the people, or both. In the absence of these weaknesses, states that have power enough to keep an army in the field cannot be lost.

Philip of Macedon (not the father of Alexander the Great, but the second Philip who was conquered by Titus Quintius) did not have much territory compared to that of the Romans and Greeks who attacked him. Yet, being a warlike man who knew how to attract the people and secure the nobles, he sustained the war against his enemies for many years. Although he lost control over some cities in the end, nevertheless he retained the kingdom.

Therefore, princes do not lose their states due to bad luck after so many years' possession. They lose them through their own laziness. In quiet times, they never thought there could be a change (it is a common defect in man not to prepare for a storm while the sun still shines). Afterwards, when the bad times came, they thought of running out and not of defending themselves. They hoped that their people, disgusted by the conquerors, would call them back from exile. When other courses fail, this recall may be good, but it is very bad to have neglected all other possible solutions. Indeed, we should never be willing to fall simply because of the belief that someone will pick us up again. Usually, the recall does not happen, or when it does it will not leave the prince secure. A deliverance is useless unless you yourself controlled and created it. The only reliable, certain, and durable courses depend on yourself and your skills.

Chapter 25

The Influence of Fortune on Human Affairs and how it May be Countered

Many men have said, and still do say, that the affairs of the world are governed by fortune and by God to such an extent that neither wisdom nor support can help a man. Those who hold this opinion would have us believe that there is no reason to work hard because luck will take its course. This opinion has become even more widely believed in our times because of the nearly unbelievable changes we have seen and which we still see every day. When I think about these events, I sometimes find myself agreeing with this opinion. Nevertheless, since I refuse to abandon the idea of free will, I hold it to be true that Fortune is the referee of one-half of our actions, but that she still leaves us to direct the other half, or perhaps a little less.

I compare her to one of those raging rivers which floods over the plains, sweeps away trees and buildings, and carries away the soil from place to place. Everything flies before such a flood; all yield to its violence. None are able in any way to withstand it. Yet, despite the river’s harsh nature, it does not mean that men should not make preparations when the weather is nice. Indeed, they should set up defenses and barriers so that the next time the river floods, the waters may pass away by canal. That way, their force will be neither so unrestrained nor so dangerous. The same is true for fortune, who shows her power where valor has not prepared to resist her. She turns her forces where she knows that barriers and defenses have not been raised to restrain her.

If you consider Italy, where invasions and fortune have had great effect, you will see it to be an open country without barriers and without any defense. For if it had been defended by proper valor, as are Germany, Spain, and France, either this invasion would not have made the great changes it has made or it would not have come at all. And this I consider enough to say concerning resistance to fortune in general.

But returning to the point of princes, I say that a prince may be happy to-day and ruined to-morrow without having shown any change of nature and character. This, I believe, happens because the prince who relies entirely upon fortune is lost when it changes. I believe also that the successful prince directs his actions according to the spirit of the times. The prince whose actions do not match the necessities of the times will not be successful.

Men take various paths to get to the glory and riches they seek. One is cautious, another is hasty. One uses force, while another relies on skill. One is patient, while another is impatient. Each prince succeeds in reaching the goal by a different method. At the same time, while two men may be equally cautious, one may fail while the other succeeds. Similarly, two men may follow different paths, yet be equally successful. It is the same at times whether one is cautious or impetuous. This situation arises primarily from whether or not the men used methods appropriate to the spirit of the times. And as a result, we have the following possibilities: two men working differently bring about the same effect, and of two other men working similarly can reach very different levels of success.

The only way to explain the different ends men reach comes from what I just said. For, if the situation at the times is such that a cautious and patient prince succeeds, his fortune is made. However, if times and affairs change, that same prince is ruined if he does not change his course of action. Unfortunately, men are not so wise as to be able to change to suit the circumstances. This is true because men cannot abandon their natures, and also because men cannot be persuaded to quit actions which have worked well for them in the past. Therefore, the cautious man who needs to become bold does not know how to do it and is ruined. If human nature could be changed to fit the conditions at any given time, fortune would not change.

Pope Julius II worked impetuously in all his affairs, and found the times and circumstances fit his methods so well that he always met with success. Consider his first enterprise against Bologna. Messer Giovanni Bentivogli was still alive. The Venetians were not agreeable to the Pope’s plan, nor was the King of Spain, and he had the enterprise still under discussion with the King of France. Nevertheless Pope Julius personally entered upon the expedition with his accustomed boldness and energy, a move which made Spain and the Venetians stand unable to make a decision, the latter from fear, the former from desire to recover all the kingdom of Naples. On the other hand, he drew after him the King of France, because that king, having observed the movement, and desiring to make the Pope his friend so as to humble the Venetians, found it impossible to refuse him soldiers without obviously offending him. Therefore Julius with his impetuous action accomplished what no other Pope with simple human wisdom could have done. For if he had waited in Rome until he could get away, with his plans arranged and everything fixed, as any other Pope would have done, he would never have succeeded. Because the King of France would have made a thousand excuses, and the others would have raised a thousand fears. I will leave his other actions alone, as they were all alike, and they all succeeded, for the shortness of his life did not let him experience the contrary. But if circumstances had arisen which required him to go cautiously, his ruin would have followed, because he would never have deviated from those ways which were natural to him.

I conclude that since fortune can change while men are stuck in their ways, men will only succeed so long as their natures match the situation of the times. For my part, I think it is better to be adventurous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you wish to control her it is necessary to beat and ill-use her. She allows herself to be mastered by the adventurous rather than by those who go to work more coldly. Fortune is always like a woman. She loves young men because they are less cautious, more violent, and command her more boldly.

Chapter 26

I Beg you to Liberate Italy from the Barbarians

I have thought for a long time about the things I have just written, and I have wondered whether today is not a good time for a new prince. I have wondered whether the elements which would support a wise and virtuous prince in an attempt to introduce a new order of things were present or not. Could such a prince bring honor to himself and good times to the people of this country? It seems to me that there has never been a time better for a new prince to create such a state.

We are at present in a situation like that facing Moses, where it was necessary that the people of Israel should be captive so as to prove the ability of Moses. We are the Persians oppressed by the Medes, and we await someone with the greatness of soul of Cyrus. We are the scattered Athenians waiting to prove the capabilities of Theseus. Similarly, at the present time Italy is in such a pathetic state that she will prove the virtue of an Italian spirit. Indeed, Italy is more enslaved than the Hebrews, more oppressed than the Persians, and more scattered than the Athenians. Italy is without head, without order, beaten, despoiled, torn, and overrun. Italy has endured every kind of desolation.

For a recent moment, one prince showed so much spark that we thought he was approved by God to bring our redemption. Nevertheless, at the height of his career his fall proved that fortune rejected him. As a result, Italy was left almost without life and still waits for someone to heal her wounds. She awaits someone to put an end to the ravaging and plundering of Lombardy, to stop the swindling and taxing of the kingdom and of Tuscany, and to cleanse her festering sores. Italy begs God to send someone to deliver her from these wrongs and the barbarous insults. Italy is ready and willing to follow a banner if only someone will raise it. At present, there is no one more qualified to provide hope and leadership to Italy than your illustrious family with its valor and fortune. Your family is favored by God and by the Church. Indeed, your family leads the church and could lead this redemption of Italy.

This task will not be difficult if you keep in mind the actions and lives of the men I have named. And even though they were great and wonderful men, they were still men. Each one of them had no better opportunity than you face at the present. Their actions were neither more just nor easier than today. Nor was God more their friend than He is yours. With us there is great justice, because any war which is necessary is just. Arms are virtuous when they provide the only hope. Italy is very willing to be led, and where such willingness exists, the difficulties cannot be great. All you have to do is follow those men I have brought to your attention. Moreover, there have been extraordinary proofs of God’s support. The sea is divided. A cloud has led the way. The rock has poured forth water. It has rained manna. Everything has contributed to your greatness, but you must do the rest. God is not willing to do everything. He will not take away our free will and that share of glory which belongs to us.

It is no great surprise that none of the above-named Italians have been able to accomplish all that is expected from your illustrious family. There have been so many revolutions and campaigns in Italy that it seems as if the military virtue of Italy is exhausted. We have reached this point because the old order of things was not good, and none of us have been able to find a new one. Nothing honors a man more than to establish new laws and ordinances when he himself is a new prince. Such things, if they are done well, will make him respected and admired. Italy offers prime opportunities for the prince to follow this path.

There is great physical strength here, but we fail in the head. Look carefully at our duels and hand-to-hand combats. Look how superior the Italians are in strength, dexterity, and subtlety. But our armies are still not competitive, and this is entirely the fault of our weak leaders. Those who have skills will not follow orders. Everyone claims to know everything. Since no one has ever had the skill or fortune to rise above the rest, no one has ever united the men of Italy. For so long a time, and through so much fighting in the past twenty years, every purely Italian army has faired poorly. Witness Taro, Alessandria, Capua, Genoa, Vaila, Bologna, and Mestre. If, therefore, your illustrious family wishes to follow those remarkable men who have redeemed their countries, there is one crucial necessity. Before all things, as a true foundation for every action, you must have your own forces. No other soldiers can be more faithful, honest, or better. Individual Italian soldiers are good, but they will be much better when they find themselves commanded, honored, and supported by their prince. Therefore, you must prepare such soldiers so that you can be defended against foreigners by Italian valor.

And although Swiss and Spanish infantry are very powerful, both have a defect. As a result of that defect, a third army would not only be able to oppose them, but could be counted upon to overthrow them. The Spaniards cannot resist cavalry, and the Swiss are afraid of close combat with infantry. Time and again, the Spaniards have been unable to resist French cavalry and the Swiss have lost to infantry. And although a complete proof of this latter cannot be shown, nevertheless there was some evidence of it at the battle of Ravenna, when the Spanish infantry were confronted by German battalions, who follow the same tactics as the Swiss; when the Spaniards, by agility of body and with the aid of their shields, got in under the pikes of the Germans and stood out of danger, able to attack, while the Germans stood helpless, and, if the cavalry had not dashed up, all would have been over with them. It is possible, therefore, knowing the defects of both these infantries, to invent a new one, which will resist cavalry and not be afraid of infantry; this need not create a new order of arms, but a variation upon the old. And these are the kind of improvements which confer reputation and power upon a new prince. [untrans]

This opportunity for liberating Italy cannot be allowed to pass. It is impossible to understate how much love and gratitude the wounded provinces of Italy would shower on a liberator who freed them from the foreigners. One cannot imagine the thirst for revenge, the stubborn faith, the stubborn devotion, or the tears that lie within Italy today. What door would be closed to him? Who would refuse to obey him? What envy would get in his way? What Italian would refuse to honor him? THIS BARBARIAN OCCUPATION STINKS IN THE NOSTRILS OF ALL OF US. Let, therefore, your illustrious family take up this duty with all the courage and hope of every just action. Let it be under your family’s flag that our native country is made noble. Under your family’s leadership we need to prove Petrarch’s saying:

The Roman valor shall the foe engage,

And win swift triumph o’er barbarian rage;

For martial virtue, our forefather’s pride,

In true Italian hearts has never died.

THE END